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- Changes of the energetic profile in masters' swimmers over a seasonPublication . Ferreira, M I; Barbosa, Tiago M.; Neiva, Henrique; Alves, J Vilaça; Costa, M J; Marinho, DanielThe aim of this study was to track and compare the changes of performance and energetic profile of male and female masters swimmers during a season. Eleven female (age: 34.7±7.3-y) and fourteen male (age: 35.6±7.4-y) with 4.2±3.7-y and 3.9±1.6-y of experience in masters, respectively, performed an all-out 200 m freestyle to evaluate total energy expenditure (Etot), aerobic (Aer), anaerobic lactic (AnL) and alactic (AnAl) contributions. The oxygen uptake (VO2) was measured immediately after the 200 m trial and the VO2 reached during the trial was estimated through the backward extrapolation of the O2 recovery curve. Fingertip capillary blood samples were collected before the 200 m trial and 3, 5, and 7 minutes after its end. Significant differences were observed between male (TP1:177.50±30.96s; TP2:174.79±29.08s; TP3:171.21±22.38s) and female (TP1:205.18±24.47s; TP2: 197.45±20.97s; TP3: 193.45±18.12s) for 200 m freestyle performance at the three time periods (TPs). Male presented higher Etot in all TPs (TP1:230.40±48.40kJ; TP2:242.49±37.91kJ; TP3:257.94±46.32kJ) compared with that found for female swimmers (TP1:188.51±35.13kJ; TP2:193.18±20.98kJ; TP3:199.77±25.94kJ). Male presented higher AnL (TP1:33.42±6.82kJ; TP2:30.97±8.73kJ; TP3:30.66±8.27kJ) and AnAl (TP1:30.61±3.48kJ; TP2:30.61±3.48kJ; TP3:30.60±3.48kJ) than female (TP1:18.83±8.45kJ; TP2:14.98±4.17kJ; TP3:18.33±8.66kJ) and (TP1:24.32±2.22kJ; TP2:24.31±2.23kJ; TP3: 24.31±2.23kJ). Aerobic metabolism is the major contributor for Etot both in male (TP1:71.63±4.99%; TP2:74.05±5.03%; TP3:76.14±4.46%) and female swimmers (TP1:76.87±3.86%; TP2:79.40±3.63%; TP3:78.40±5.54%). The better performance obtained by male compared to female swimmers may be due to the different contributions of the energetic pathways. Aerobic metabolism was the major contributor to Etot in a 200 m race, in both genders. Partial aerobic contribution was higher in female, while partial anaerobic contribution was greater in male.
- Energetics, Biomechanics, and Performance in Masters' Swimmers: A Systematic ReviewPublication . Ferreira, Maria I; Barbosa, Tiago M.; Costa, Mário Jorge; Neiva, Henrique; Marinho, DanielThis study aimed to summarize evidence on masters' swimmers energetics, biomechanics, and performance gathered in selected studies. An expanded search was conducted on 6 databases, conference proceedings, and department files. Fifteen studies were selected for further analysis. A qualitative evaluation of the studies based on the Quality Index (QI) was performed by 2 independent reviewers. The studies were thereafter classified into 3 domains according to the reported data: performance (10 studies), energetics (4 studies), and biomechanics (6 studies). The selected 15 articles included in this review presented low QI scores (mean score, 10.47 points). The biomechanics domain obtained higher QI (11.5 points), followed by energetics and performance (10.6 and 9.9 points, respectively). Stroke frequency (SF) and stroke length (SL) were both influenced by aging, although SF is more affected than SL. Propelling efficiency (ηp) decreased with age. Swimming performance declined with age. The performance declines with age having male swimmers deliver better performances than female counterparts, although this difference tends to be narrow in long-distance events. One single longitudinal study is found in the literature reporting the changes in performance over time. The remaining studies are cross-sectional designs focusing on the energetics and biomechanics. Overall, biomechanics parameters, such as SF, SL, and ηp, tend to decrease with age. This review shows the lack of a solid body of knowledge (reflected in the amount and quality of the articles published) on the changes in biomechanics, energetics, and performance of master swimmers over time. The training programs for this age-group should aim to preserve the energetics as much as possible and, concurrently, improve the technique. Training sessions should feature a higher percentage of technical drills with the goal of enhancing the swim technique. Another goal should be the association of technique enhancement with aerobic and anaerobic sets, enabling the swimmer to improve the swimming efficiency.
- Does Warm-Up Have a Beneficial Effect on 100-m Freestyle?Publication . Neiva, Henrique; Marques, MC; Fernandes, Ricardo J.; Viana, João L.; Barbosa, Tiago M.; Marinho, DanielTo investigate the effect of warm-up on 100-m swimming performance. Twenty competitive swimmers (with a training frequency of 8.0 ± 1.0 sessions/wk) performed 2 maximal 100-m freestyle trials on separate days, with and without prior warm-up, in a counterbalanced and randomized design. The warm-up distance totaled 1000 m and replicated the swimmers' usual precompetition warm-up strategy. Performance (time), physiological (capillary blood lactate concentrations), psychophysiological (perceived exertion), and biomechanical variables (distance per stroke, stroke frequency, and stroke index) were assessed on both trials. Performance in the 100-m was fastest in the warm-up condition (67.15 ± 5.60 vs 68.10 ± 5.14 s; P = .01), although 3 swimmers swam faster without warm-up. Critical to this was the 1st 50-m lap (32.10 ± 2.59 vs 32.78 ± 2.33 s; P < .01), where the swimmers presented higher distance per stroke (2.06 ± 0.19 vs. 1.98 ± 0.16 m; P = .04) and swimming efficiency compared with the no-warm-up condition (stroke index 3.46 ± 0.53 vs 3.14 ± 0.44 m2 · c1 · s1; P < .01). Notwithstanding this better stroke-kinematic pattern, blood lactate concentrations and perceived exertion were similar between trials. These results suggest that swimmers' usual warm-up routines lead to faster 100-m freestyle swimming performance, a factor that appears to be related to better swimming efficiency in the 1st lap of the race. This study highlights the importance of performing swimming drills (for higher distance per stroke) before a maximal 100-m freestyle effort in similar groups of swimmers.
- The Effect of Ballistic Exercise as Pre-Activation for 100 m SprintsPublication . Gil, Maria Helena; Neiva, Henrique; Garrido, Nuno; Aidar, Felipe J.; Sousa, Maria S. Cirilo; Marques, Mário; Marinho, DanielThe benefits of warm-up in sports performance has received a special interest in the current literature. However, there is a large gap of knowledge about the tasks to be performed, specifically in the real competitive environment. The purpose of the study was to verify the acute effects of a warm-up including ballistic exercises in 100 m running performance. In addition, a second 100 m trial was assessed to better understand the warm-up effects in training and competition. Eleven men (25.4 ± 6.2 years of age, 1.76 ± 0.08 m of height, 78.2 ± 8.6 kg of body mass) were submitted to three different protocols, in a randomized order: no warm-up (NWU), typical warm-up (WU) and WU complemented with ballistic exercises (PAP). Biomechanical, physiological and psychophysiological variables were assessed. Differences were found between the three conditions assessed in the first 100 m sprint with 7.4% and 7.6% faster performances after the WU and PAP, compared to NWU. Stride length was higher in the second part of the 100 m after PAP compared with WU. These results highlight the positive effects of warm-up for sprinting performance. The inclusion of ballistic exercises, besides being used to improve sprint performance, can increase stride length in the final of the 100 m race.
- Effects of Warm-Up, Post-Warm-Up, and Re-Warm-Up Strategies on Explosive Efforts in Team SportsPublication . Silva, Luís Miguel; Neiva, Henrique; Marques, MC; Izquierdo, Mikel; Marinho, DanielBackground In team sports, it is imperative that the warm-up improves acute explosive performance. However, the exact strategies, methods, and consequences of different warm-up practices remain unclear. A time delay between the warm-up and match and during half-time could negate the positive metabolic effects of the warm-up. Objectives We conducted a systematic review to synthesize and analyze the potential effects of strategies during a warm-up (before match), post-warm-up (time between the end of warm-up and the start of a match), and re-warm-up (half-time break within a match) on explosive performance in team sports. Furthermore, we examined optimal warm-up strategies based on the included studies. [...]
- Effect of Gender, Energetics, and Biomechanics on Swimming Masters PerformancePublication . Ferreira, Maria I.; Barbosa, Tiago M.; Neiva, Henrique; Marta, Carlos C.; Costa, Mário J.; Marinho, DanielThe purpose of this study was to analyze the effect of gender and energetics on biomechanics and performance of masters swimmers over 1 season. Twenty-five masters swimmers (14 male and 11 female) were assessed 3 times (TP1, TP2, and TP3) during a season (male personal record in 200-m freestyle event: 173.00 ± 31.41 seconds: female personal record in 200-m freestyle event: 200.73 ± 25.02 seconds). An incremental 5 × 200-m step test was selected to evaluate velocity at 4 mmol·l⁻¹ of blood lactate concentration (v4), maximal blood lactate concentration after exercise (La(peak)), maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max), stroke frequency, stroke length (SL), stroke index (SI), and propelling efficiency of the arm stroke (η(p)). The 200-m freestyle performance and average swimming velocity (v200) were also monitored. Significant differences were observed between males and females for the 200-m freestyle performance, SL, SI, and La(peak). Performance (205.18 ± 24.47 seconds; 197.45 ± 20.97 seconds; 193.45 ± 18.12 seconds), SL (1.69 ± 0.17 m; 1.79 ± 0.13 m; 1.78 ± 0.15 m), SI (1.68 ± 0.31 m²·c⁻¹·s⁻¹; 1.83 ± 0.27 m²·c⁻¹·s⁻¹; 1.85 ± 0.27 m²·c⁻¹·s⁻¹), η(p) (0.32 ± 0.04; 0.33 ± 0.03; 0.33 ± 0.04), and V̇O2max (38.71 ± 3.44 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹; 43.43 ± 3.71 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹; 43.95 ± 7.02 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) have changed significantly throughout the season (TP1, TP2, and TP3, respectively) in female swimmers. In male, significant changes were found in η(p) (0.33 ± 0.07; 0.36 ± 0.05; 0.36 ± 0.06) and V̇O2max (41.65 ± 7.30 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹; 45.19 ± 6.55 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹; 50.19 ± 9.65 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) over the season (TP1, TP2, and TP3, respectively). Gender presented a significant effect on SL (TP2: η(p)² = 0.29; TP3: η(p)² = 0.37), SI (TP2: η(p)² = 0.25), and La(peak) (TP3: η(p)² = 0.42). v4 (TP1: η(p)² = 0.23), SL (TP1: η(p)² = 0.46), SI (TP1: η(p)² = 0.78; TP2: η(p)² = 0.37; TP3: η(p)² = 0.32), and η(p) (TP1: η(p)² = 0.28) had a significant effect on performance. Male masters swimmers have better performance, SL, SI, and La(peak) than female counterparts. Female masters swimmers enhanced significantly the 200-m freestyle performance over the season due to the improvement in swimming technique (SL, SI, and η(p)) and energetic factors (v4 and V̇O2max). Nonsignificant improvements were observed for the males' performance. Gender has a significant effect on SL, SI, and La(peak). Therefore, performance is more dependent on technical factors than energetics.
- Warm-up for Sprint Swimming: Race-Pace or Aerobic Stimulation? A Randomized StudyPublication . Neiva, Henrique; Marques, MC; Barbosa, Tiago M.; Izquierdo, Mikel; Viana, João L.; Teixeira, Ana M.; Marinho, DanielThe aim of this study was to compare the effects of 2 different warm-up intensities on 100-m swimming performance in a randomized controlled trial. Thirteen competitive swimmers performed two 100-m freestyle time-trials on separate days after either control or experimental warm-up in a randomized design. The control warm-up included a typical race-pace set (4 × 25 m), whereas the experimental warm-up included an aerobic set (8 × 50 m at 98-102% of critical velocity). Cortisol, testosterone, blood lactate ([La]), oxygen uptake (V[Combining Dot Above]O2), heart rate, core (Tcore and Tcorenet) and tympanic temperatures, and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were monitored. Stroke length (SL), stroke frequency (SF), stroke index (SI), and propelling efficiency (ηp) were assessed for each 50-m lap. We found that V[Combining Dot Above]O2, heart rate, and Tcorenet were higher after experimental warm-up (d > 0.73), but only the positive effect for Tcorenet was maintained until the trial. Performance was not different between conditions (d = 0.07). Experimental warm-up was found to slow SF (mean change ±90% CL = 2.06 ± 1.48%) and increase SL (1.65 ± 1.40%) and ηp (1.87 ± 1.33%) in the first lap. After the time-trials, this warm-up had a positive effect on Tcorenet (d = 0.69) and a negative effect on [La] (d = 0.56). Although the warm-ups had similar outcomes in the 100-m freestyle, performance was achieved through different biomechanical strategies. Stroke length and efficiency were higher in the first lap after the experimental warm-up, whereas SF was higher after control warm-up. Physiological adaptations were observed mainly through an increased Tcore after experimental warm-up. In this condition, the lower [La] after the trial suggests lower dependency on anaerobic metabolism.
- Warm-up and performance in competitive swimmingPublication . Neiva, Henrique; Marques, MC; Barbosa, Tiago M.; Izquierdo, Mikel; Marinho, DanielWarm-up before physical activity is commonly accepted to be fundamental, and any priming practices are usually thought to optimize performance. However, specifically in swimming, studies on the effects of warm-up are scarce, which may be due to the swimming pool environment, which has a high temperature and humidity, and to the complexity of warm-up procedures. The purpose of this study is to review and summarize the different studies on how warming up affects swimming performance, and to develop recommendations for improving the efficiency of warm-up before competition. Most of the main proposed effects of warm-up, such as elevated core and muscular temperatures, increased blood flow and oxygen delivery to muscle cells and higher efficiency of muscle contractions, support the hypothesis that warm-up enhances performance. However, while many researchers have reported improvements in performance after warm-up, others have found no benefits to warm-up. This lack of consensus emphasizes the need to evaluate the real effects of warm-up and optimize its design. Little is known about the effectiveness of warm-up in competitive swimming, and the variety of warm-up methods and swimming events studied makes it difficult to compare the published conclusions about the role of warm-up in swimming. Recent findings have shown that warm-up has a positive effect on the swimmer's performance, especially for distances greater than 200 m. We recommend that swimmers warm-up for a relatively moderate distance (between 1,000 and 1,500 m) with a proper intensity (a brief approach to race pace velocity) and recovery time sufficient to prevent the early onset of fatigue and to allow the restoration of energy reserves (8-20 min).
- Effects of 10min vs. 20min passive rest after warm-up on 100m freestyle time-trial performance: A randomized crossover studyPublication . Neiva, Henrique; Marques, Mário C.; Barbosa, Tiago M.; Izquierdo, Mikel; Viana, João L.; Marinho, DanielThe aim of this study was to compare the effect of 10min vs. 20min passive rest post warm-up on performance in a 100m freestyle time-trial. Randomized crossover. Eleven competitive male swimmers performed two experimental trials on different days, consisting of 100m freestyle time-trials following 10min or 20min passive rest after a standard 1200m warm-up. Performance (time-trial), biomechanical (stroke length, stroke frequency, stroke index, propelling efficiency), physiological (blood lactate concentrations, heart rate, core and tympanic temperature), and psychophysiological (perceived effort) variables were assessed during both trials. Time-trial performance was faster after 10min as opposed to 20min passive rest (58.41±1.99s vs. 59.06±1.86, p<0.01). This was supported by strong effect sizes (d=0.99) and the qualitative indication of "likely" positive effects. Heart rate before the time-trial was also higher after 10min passive rest (89±12bpm vs. 82±13bpm; p<0.01). Furthermore, net core temperature and oxygen uptake values before the time-trial were substantially lower after 20min passive rest. These data suggest that the 10min post warm-up passive rest enhances 100m freestyle performance when compared to a 20min period. An improvement that appears to be mediated by the combined effects of a shorter post warm-up period on core temperature, heart rate and oxygen uptake.
- Stability of pace and turn parameters of elite long-distance swimmersPublication . Morais, Jorge; Barbosa, Tiago M.; Neiva, Henrique; Marinho, DanielThis study aimed to assess the stability of the performance, pace and turn parameters of elite long-distance male swimmers during an 800 m freestyle race. The sample was composed by 38 male swimmers, participating in the 800 m event at the 2016 LEN European Aquatic Championships (long course meter). The performance, and a set of pace and turn parameters were analyzed. A customized software was used to perform each race analysis. Swimmers spent 64.05 ± 0.50% and 35.95 ± 0.49% of the final race time in the clean swim and turns, respectively. In the pace parameters, the clean swim was the only one that did not differ between the first and second half of the race (1.63 ± 0.05 vs 1.62 ± 0.05 m·s-1), and in the turn parameters, the water break distance was also similar (5.13 ± 1.17 vs 5.06 ± 0.98 m). A significant and moderate-strong variation was verified for the performance (total race lap effect: p < 0.001, η2 = 0.62), and a significant and moderate variation for the pace parameters (total race: p < 0.001, 0.15 ≤ η2 ≤ 0.33), and for the turn parameters (total race: p < 0.01, 0.15 ≤ η2 ≤ 0.33). Present data (pace and turn variation) shows that elite long-distance male swimmers do not maintain a similar pattern during an 800 m freestyle race. Future research is need to understand if this lack of pace and turn stability is the best way to enhance the performance, or if swimmers should be advised to control their pace and turn. Nevertheless, coaches are advised to help swimmers with feedback about their pace (i.e., controlling the intermediate 30 m) and turn performances (i.e., controlling the 5 m in and 15 m out), leading to a positive effect in their final race time.