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- Changes of the energetic profile in masters' swimmers over a seasonPublication . Ferreira, M I; Barbosa, Tiago M.; Neiva, Henrique; Alves, J Vilaça; Costa, M J; Marinho, DanielThe aim of this study was to track and compare the changes of performance and energetic profile of male and female masters swimmers during a season. Eleven female (age: 34.7±7.3-y) and fourteen male (age: 35.6±7.4-y) with 4.2±3.7-y and 3.9±1.6-y of experience in masters, respectively, performed an all-out 200 m freestyle to evaluate total energy expenditure (Etot), aerobic (Aer), anaerobic lactic (AnL) and alactic (AnAl) contributions. The oxygen uptake (VO2) was measured immediately after the 200 m trial and the VO2 reached during the trial was estimated through the backward extrapolation of the O2 recovery curve. Fingertip capillary blood samples were collected before the 200 m trial and 3, 5, and 7 minutes after its end. Significant differences were observed between male (TP1:177.50±30.96s; TP2:174.79±29.08s; TP3:171.21±22.38s) and female (TP1:205.18±24.47s; TP2: 197.45±20.97s; TP3: 193.45±18.12s) for 200 m freestyle performance at the three time periods (TPs). Male presented higher Etot in all TPs (TP1:230.40±48.40kJ; TP2:242.49±37.91kJ; TP3:257.94±46.32kJ) compared with that found for female swimmers (TP1:188.51±35.13kJ; TP2:193.18±20.98kJ; TP3:199.77±25.94kJ). Male presented higher AnL (TP1:33.42±6.82kJ; TP2:30.97±8.73kJ; TP3:30.66±8.27kJ) and AnAl (TP1:30.61±3.48kJ; TP2:30.61±3.48kJ; TP3:30.60±3.48kJ) than female (TP1:18.83±8.45kJ; TP2:14.98±4.17kJ; TP3:18.33±8.66kJ) and (TP1:24.32±2.22kJ; TP2:24.31±2.23kJ; TP3: 24.31±2.23kJ). Aerobic metabolism is the major contributor for Etot both in male (TP1:71.63±4.99%; TP2:74.05±5.03%; TP3:76.14±4.46%) and female swimmers (TP1:76.87±3.86%; TP2:79.40±3.63%; TP3:78.40±5.54%). The better performance obtained by male compared to female swimmers may be due to the different contributions of the energetic pathways. Aerobic metabolism was the major contributor to Etot in a 200 m race, in both genders. Partial aerobic contribution was higher in female, while partial anaerobic contribution was greater in male.
- Energetics, Biomechanics, and Performance in Masters' Swimmers: A Systematic ReviewPublication . Ferreira, Maria I; Barbosa, Tiago M.; Costa, Mário Jorge; Neiva, Henrique; Marinho, DanielThis study aimed to summarize evidence on masters' swimmers energetics, biomechanics, and performance gathered in selected studies. An expanded search was conducted on 6 databases, conference proceedings, and department files. Fifteen studies were selected for further analysis. A qualitative evaluation of the studies based on the Quality Index (QI) was performed by 2 independent reviewers. The studies were thereafter classified into 3 domains according to the reported data: performance (10 studies), energetics (4 studies), and biomechanics (6 studies). The selected 15 articles included in this review presented low QI scores (mean score, 10.47 points). The biomechanics domain obtained higher QI (11.5 points), followed by energetics and performance (10.6 and 9.9 points, respectively). Stroke frequency (SF) and stroke length (SL) were both influenced by aging, although SF is more affected than SL. Propelling efficiency (ηp) decreased with age. Swimming performance declined with age. The performance declines with age having male swimmers deliver better performances than female counterparts, although this difference tends to be narrow in long-distance events. One single longitudinal study is found in the literature reporting the changes in performance over time. The remaining studies are cross-sectional designs focusing on the energetics and biomechanics. Overall, biomechanics parameters, such as SF, SL, and ηp, tend to decrease with age. This review shows the lack of a solid body of knowledge (reflected in the amount and quality of the articles published) on the changes in biomechanics, energetics, and performance of master swimmers over time. The training programs for this age-group should aim to preserve the energetics as much as possible and, concurrently, improve the technique. Training sessions should feature a higher percentage of technical drills with the goal of enhancing the swim technique. Another goal should be the association of technique enhancement with aerobic and anaerobic sets, enabling the swimmer to improve the swimming efficiency.
- Does Warm-Up Have a Beneficial Effect on 100-m Freestyle?Publication . Neiva, Henrique; Marques, MC; Fernandes, Ricardo J.; Viana, João L.; Barbosa, Tiago M.; Marinho, DanielTo investigate the effect of warm-up on 100-m swimming performance. Twenty competitive swimmers (with a training frequency of 8.0 ± 1.0 sessions/wk) performed 2 maximal 100-m freestyle trials on separate days, with and without prior warm-up, in a counterbalanced and randomized design. The warm-up distance totaled 1000 m and replicated the swimmers' usual precompetition warm-up strategy. Performance (time), physiological (capillary blood lactate concentrations), psychophysiological (perceived exertion), and biomechanical variables (distance per stroke, stroke frequency, and stroke index) were assessed on both trials. Performance in the 100-m was fastest in the warm-up condition (67.15 ± 5.60 vs 68.10 ± 5.14 s; P = .01), although 3 swimmers swam faster without warm-up. Critical to this was the 1st 50-m lap (32.10 ± 2.59 vs 32.78 ± 2.33 s; P < .01), where the swimmers presented higher distance per stroke (2.06 ± 0.19 vs. 1.98 ± 0.16 m; P = .04) and swimming efficiency compared with the no-warm-up condition (stroke index 3.46 ± 0.53 vs 3.14 ± 0.44 m2 · c1 · s1; P < .01). Notwithstanding this better stroke-kinematic pattern, blood lactate concentrations and perceived exertion were similar between trials. These results suggest that swimmers' usual warm-up routines lead to faster 100-m freestyle swimming performance, a factor that appears to be related to better swimming efficiency in the 1st lap of the race. This study highlights the importance of performing swimming drills (for higher distance per stroke) before a maximal 100-m freestyle effort in similar groups of swimmers.
- The Effect of Ballistic Exercise as Pre-Activation for 100 m SprintsPublication . Gil, Maria Helena; Neiva, Henrique; Garrido, Nuno; Aidar, Felipe J.; Sousa, Maria S. Cirilo; Marques, Mário; Marinho, DanielThe benefits of warm-up in sports performance has received a special interest in the current literature. However, there is a large gap of knowledge about the tasks to be performed, specifically in the real competitive environment. The purpose of the study was to verify the acute effects of a warm-up including ballistic exercises in 100 m running performance. In addition, a second 100 m trial was assessed to better understand the warm-up effects in training and competition. Eleven men (25.4 ± 6.2 years of age, 1.76 ± 0.08 m of height, 78.2 ± 8.6 kg of body mass) were submitted to three different protocols, in a randomized order: no warm-up (NWU), typical warm-up (WU) and WU complemented with ballistic exercises (PAP). Biomechanical, physiological and psychophysiological variables were assessed. Differences were found between the three conditions assessed in the first 100 m sprint with 7.4% and 7.6% faster performances after the WU and PAP, compared to NWU. Stride length was higher in the second part of the 100 m after PAP compared with WU. These results highlight the positive effects of warm-up for sprinting performance. The inclusion of ballistic exercises, besides being used to improve sprint performance, can increase stride length in the final of the 100 m race.
- Concurrent Training Followed by Detraining: Does the Resistance Training Intensity Matter?Publication . Sousa, António C.; Marinho, Daniel; Gil, Maria Helena; Izquierdo, Mikel; Rodríguez-Rosell, David; Neiva, Henrique; Marques, Mário C.The aim of this study was to analyze the training and detraining (DT) effects of concurrent aerobic training and resistance training against 3 different external loads on strength and aerobic variables. Thirty-two men were randomly assigned to 4 groups: low-load (LLG, n = 9), moderate-load (MLG, n = 9), high-load (HLG, n = 8), and control group (CG, n = 6). Resistance training consisted of full squat (FS) with a low load (40-55% 1 repetition maximum [1RM]), a moderate load (55-70% 1RM), or a high load (70-85% 1RM) combined with jump and sprint exercises. Aerobic training was performed at 75% of the maximal aerobic speed for 15-20 minutes. The training period lasted for 8-week, followed by 4-week DT. Pretraining, post-training, and post-DT evaluations included 20-m running sprints (0-10 m: T10; 0-20 m: T20), shuttle run test, countermovement vertical jump (CMJ) test, and loading test (1RM) in FS. All the experimental groups showed improvements (p ≤ 0.05) in all the parameters assessed, except the LLG for T10 and the HLG for T20. The LLG, MLG, and HLG showed great changes in 1RM and V[Combining Dot Above]O2max compared with the CG (p ≤ 0.05), whereas the HLG and MLG showed a greater percentage change than the CG in T10 (p < 0.001) and CMJ (p ≤ 0.05). The 4-week DT period resulted in detrimental effects in all variables analyzed for all 3 experimental groups. In conclusion, our results suggest that strength training programs with low, moderate, or high external loads combined with low-intensity aerobic training could be effective for producing significant gains in strength and aerobic capacities. Moreover, the higher loads used increased gains in explosive efforts.
- The effect of 12 weeks of water-aerobics on health status and physical fitness: An ecological approachPublication . Neiva, Henrique; Faíl, Luís Brandão; Izquierdo, Mikel; Marques, Mário C; Marinho, Daniel AThe main purpose of the present study was to verify the effects of a 12-week water aerobics program in a real-life context on health indicators and physical fitness in adults and older adults. Fifteen volunteers (58.80 ± 14.32 years old) were part of an experimental group (Exercise), and eight volunteers (59.00 ± 12.26 years old) were part of the control group (Control). The Exercise performed 45 min of water aerobics twice a week for 12 weeks; no physical exercise was permitted for the Control during the same period. The evaluations were performed the week before (pre-training) and after the training program (post-training). The primary outcomes were the strength and cardiorespiratory fitness variables and the secondary outcomes included body anthropometry, lipid profile and blood pressure. Adjusted analysis for age and baseline values showed no differences between Exercise and Control in post-training moment. However, there was a moderated tendency for increased explosive strength of the upper limbs (ηp2 = 0.17), reduced body fat (ηp2 = 0.17), reduced systolic blood pressure (ηp2 = 0.14) and triglycerides (ηp2 = 0.19) in Exercise. Within groups changes showed that the training program caused an increase mainly in explosive strength in the upper limbs (0.26 m, 95% CI, 0.03, 0.49; ES = 0.63) In addition, there was a significant decrease in fat mass (-0.89%, 95% CI, -1.74, -0.03; ES = 0.61) and in the systolic blood pressure (-0.83 mmHg, -1.46, -0.19; ES = 0.71). Nonetheless, no significant changes were observed for the lipid profile. These results suggest that 12 weeks of water aerobics performed twice a week in a real-life context seem to benefit the explosive strength, body composition, and blood pressure of adults and older adults but is insufficient to alter cardiorespiratory fitness and lipid profiles.
- Relative Contribution of Arms and Legs in 30 s Fully Tethered Front Crawl SwimmingPublication . Morouço, Pedro; Marinho, Daniel; Izquierdo, Mikel; Neiva, Henrique; Marques, MCThe relative contribution of arm stroke and leg kicking to maximal fully tethered front crawl swimming performance remains to be solved. Twenty-three national level young swimmers (12 male and 11 female) randomly performed 3 bouts of 30 s fully tethered swimming (using the whole body, only the arm stroke, and only the leg kicking). A load-cell system permitted the continuous measurement of the exerted forces, and swimming velocity was calculated from the time taken to complete a 50 m front crawl swim. As expected, with no restrictions swimmers were able to exert higher forces than that using only their arm stroke or leg kicking. Estimated relative contributions of arm stroke and leg kicking were 70.3% versus 29.7% for males and 66.6% versus 33.4% for females, with 15.6% and 13.1% force deficits, respectively. To obtain higher velocities, male swimmers are highly dependent on the maximum forces they can exert with the arm stroke (r = 0.77, P < 0.01), whereas female swimmers swimming velocity is more related to whole-body mean forces (r = 0.81, P < 0.01). The obtained results point that leg kicking plays an important role over short duration high intensity bouts and that the used methodology may be useful to identify strength and/or coordination flaws.
- Effects of Warm-Up, Post-Warm-Up, and Re-Warm-Up Strategies on Explosive Efforts in Team SportsPublication . Silva, Luís Miguel; Neiva, Henrique; Marques, MC; Izquierdo, Mikel; Marinho, DanielBackground In team sports, it is imperative that the warm-up improves acute explosive performance. However, the exact strategies, methods, and consequences of different warm-up practices remain unclear. A time delay between the warm-up and match and during half-time could negate the positive metabolic effects of the warm-up. Objectives We conducted a systematic review to synthesize and analyze the potential effects of strategies during a warm-up (before match), post-warm-up (time between the end of warm-up and the start of a match), and re-warm-up (half-time break within a match) on explosive performance in team sports. Furthermore, we examined optimal warm-up strategies based on the included studies. [...]
- Effect of Gender, Energetics, and Biomechanics on Swimming Masters PerformancePublication . Ferreira, Maria I.; Barbosa, Tiago M.; Neiva, Henrique; Marta, Carlos C.; Costa, Mário J.; Marinho, DanielThe purpose of this study was to analyze the effect of gender and energetics on biomechanics and performance of masters swimmers over 1 season. Twenty-five masters swimmers (14 male and 11 female) were assessed 3 times (TP1, TP2, and TP3) during a season (male personal record in 200-m freestyle event: 173.00 ± 31.41 seconds: female personal record in 200-m freestyle event: 200.73 ± 25.02 seconds). An incremental 5 × 200-m step test was selected to evaluate velocity at 4 mmol·l⁻¹ of blood lactate concentration (v4), maximal blood lactate concentration after exercise (La(peak)), maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max), stroke frequency, stroke length (SL), stroke index (SI), and propelling efficiency of the arm stroke (η(p)). The 200-m freestyle performance and average swimming velocity (v200) were also monitored. Significant differences were observed between males and females for the 200-m freestyle performance, SL, SI, and La(peak). Performance (205.18 ± 24.47 seconds; 197.45 ± 20.97 seconds; 193.45 ± 18.12 seconds), SL (1.69 ± 0.17 m; 1.79 ± 0.13 m; 1.78 ± 0.15 m), SI (1.68 ± 0.31 m²·c⁻¹·s⁻¹; 1.83 ± 0.27 m²·c⁻¹·s⁻¹; 1.85 ± 0.27 m²·c⁻¹·s⁻¹), η(p) (0.32 ± 0.04; 0.33 ± 0.03; 0.33 ± 0.04), and V̇O2max (38.71 ± 3.44 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹; 43.43 ± 3.71 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹; 43.95 ± 7.02 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) have changed significantly throughout the season (TP1, TP2, and TP3, respectively) in female swimmers. In male, significant changes were found in η(p) (0.33 ± 0.07; 0.36 ± 0.05; 0.36 ± 0.06) and V̇O2max (41.65 ± 7.30 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹; 45.19 ± 6.55 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹; 50.19 ± 9.65 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) over the season (TP1, TP2, and TP3, respectively). Gender presented a significant effect on SL (TP2: η(p)² = 0.29; TP3: η(p)² = 0.37), SI (TP2: η(p)² = 0.25), and La(peak) (TP3: η(p)² = 0.42). v4 (TP1: η(p)² = 0.23), SL (TP1: η(p)² = 0.46), SI (TP1: η(p)² = 0.78; TP2: η(p)² = 0.37; TP3: η(p)² = 0.32), and η(p) (TP1: η(p)² = 0.28) had a significant effect on performance. Male masters swimmers have better performance, SL, SI, and La(peak) than female counterparts. Female masters swimmers enhanced significantly the 200-m freestyle performance over the season due to the improvement in swimming technique (SL, SI, and η(p)) and energetic factors (v4 and V̇O2max). Nonsignificant improvements were observed for the males' performance. Gender has a significant effect on SL, SI, and La(peak). Therefore, performance is more dependent on technical factors than energetics.
- Warm-up for Sprint Swimming: Race-Pace or Aerobic Stimulation? A Randomized StudyPublication . Neiva, Henrique; Marques, MC; Barbosa, Tiago M.; Izquierdo, Mikel; Viana, João L.; Teixeira, Ana M.; Marinho, DanielThe aim of this study was to compare the effects of 2 different warm-up intensities on 100-m swimming performance in a randomized controlled trial. Thirteen competitive swimmers performed two 100-m freestyle time-trials on separate days after either control or experimental warm-up in a randomized design. The control warm-up included a typical race-pace set (4 × 25 m), whereas the experimental warm-up included an aerobic set (8 × 50 m at 98-102% of critical velocity). Cortisol, testosterone, blood lactate ([La]), oxygen uptake (V[Combining Dot Above]O2), heart rate, core (Tcore and Tcorenet) and tympanic temperatures, and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were monitored. Stroke length (SL), stroke frequency (SF), stroke index (SI), and propelling efficiency (ηp) were assessed for each 50-m lap. We found that V[Combining Dot Above]O2, heart rate, and Tcorenet were higher after experimental warm-up (d > 0.73), but only the positive effect for Tcorenet was maintained until the trial. Performance was not different between conditions (d = 0.07). Experimental warm-up was found to slow SF (mean change ±90% CL = 2.06 ± 1.48%) and increase SL (1.65 ± 1.40%) and ηp (1.87 ± 1.33%) in the first lap. After the time-trials, this warm-up had a positive effect on Tcorenet (d = 0.69) and a negative effect on [La] (d = 0.56). Although the warm-ups had similar outcomes in the 100-m freestyle, performance was achieved through different biomechanical strategies. Stroke length and efficiency were higher in the first lap after the experimental warm-up, whereas SF was higher after control warm-up. Physiological adaptations were observed mainly through an increased Tcore after experimental warm-up. In this condition, the lower [La] after the trial suggests lower dependency on anaerobic metabolism.